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5 William and Mary, as husband and wife, reigned jointly until Mary's death in 1694. William then reigned alone until his own death in 1702. 6 George IV was regent from February 5, 1811. 7 In 1917, during World War I, George V changed the name of his house from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor.
- The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
As the head of the government of the United States, the president is arguably the most powerful government official in the world. The president is elected to a four-year term via an electoral college system. Since the Twenty-second Amendment was adopted in 1951, the American presidency has been
- The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
2024年3月29日 · Statue of Zeus at Olympia. Statue of Zeus at Olympia, a large ornate figure of the god on his throne, made about 430 bce by Phidias of Athens. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. Illustration of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, a structure famous for its imposing size and for the works of art that adorned it.
- Overview
- The thought of Confucius
- The historical context
Confucianism is the way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th–5th century BCE and followed by the Chinese people for more than two millennia. It remains the social code of the Chinese and continues to influence other countries, particularly Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
Does Confucianism have a god?
There is no deity worshipped in Confucianism, though the worship of ancestors and of Confucius himself as a sage master and teacher are practiced.
Where does Confucianism come from?
Though Confucius is sometimes credited with founding Confucianism, he said that he was interpreting the philosophy of Zhougong, the duke of Zhou, rather than creating new doctrine. Zhougong was said to have helped consolidate, expand, and refine the “feudal” ritual system. This system depended on blood ties, marriage alliances, and old covenants as well as on newly negotiated contracts.
How did Confucianism spread?
The story of Confucianism does not begin with Confucius. Nor was Confucius the founder of Confucianism in the sense that the Buddha was the founder of Buddhism and Jesus Christ the founder of Christianity. Rather, Confucius considered himself a transmitter who consciously tried to reanimate the old in order to attain the new. He proposed revitalizing the meaning of the past by advocating a ritualized life. Confucius’s love of antiquity was motivated by his strong desire to understand why certain life forms and institutions, such as reverence for ancestors, human-centred religious practices, and mourning ceremonies, had survived for centuries. His journey into the past was a search for roots, which he perceived as grounded in humanity’s deepest needs for belonging and communicating. He had faith in the cumulative power of culture. The fact that traditional ways had lost vitality did not, for him, diminish their potential for regeneration in the future. In fact, Confucius’s sense of history was so strong that he saw himself as a conservationist responsible for the continuity of the cultural values and the social norms that had worked so well for the idealized civilization of the Western Zhou dynasty.
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The scholarly tradition envisioned by Confucius can be traced to the sage-kings of antiquity. Although the earliest dynasty confirmed by archaeology is the Shang dynasty (18th–12th century bce), the historical period that Confucius claimed as relevant was much earlier. Confucius may have initiated a cultural process known in the West as Confucianism, but he and those who followed him considered themselves part of a tradition, later identified by Chinese historians as the rujia, “scholarly tradition,” that had its origins two millennia previously, when the legendary sages Yao and Shun created a civilized world through moral persuasion.
Confucius’s hero was Zhougong, or the duke of Zhou (fl. 11th century bce), who was said to have helped consolidate, expand, and refine the “feudal” ritual system. This elaborate system of mutual dependence was based on blood ties, marriage alliances, and old covenants as well as on newly negotiated contracts. The appeal to cultural values and social norms for the maintenance of interstate as well as domestic order was predicated on a shared political vision, namely, that authority lies in universal kingship, heavily invested with ethical and religious power by the “mandate of heaven” (tianming), and that social solidarity is achieved not by legal constraint but by ritual observance. Its implementation enabled the Western Zhou dynasty to survive in relative peace and prosperity for more than five centuries.
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Inspired by the statesmanship of Zhougong, Confucius harboured a lifelong dream to be in a position to emulate the duke by putting into practice the political ideas that he had learned from the ancient sages and worthies. Although Confucius never realized his political dream, his conception of politics as moral persuasion became more and more influential.
The concept of “heaven” (tian), unique in Zhou cosmology, was compatible with that of the Lord on High (Shangdi) in the Shang dynasty. Lord on High may have referred to the ancestral progenitor of the Shang royal lineage, but heaven to the Zhou kings, although also ancestral, was a more-generalized anthropomorphic god. The Zhou belief in the mandate of heaven (the functional equivalent of the will of the Lord on High) differed from the divine right of kings in that there was no guarantee that the descendants of the Zhou royal house would be entrusted with kingship, for, as written in the Shujing (“Classic of History”), “heaven sees as the people see [and] hears as the people hear”; thus, the virtues of the kings were essential for the maintenance of their power and authority. This emphasis on benevolent rulership, expressed in numerous bronze inscriptions, was both a reaction to the collapse of the Shang dynasty and an affirmation of a deep-rooted worldview.
2024年4月19日 · The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Last Updated: Apr 19, 2024 • Article History. Seven Years' War: Battle of Zorndorf. Date: 1756 - 1763. Participants: Austria. France. Great Britain. Hanover. Prussia. Russia. Saxony. Sweden. Context: Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. British Empire. Major Events: French and Indian War. Treaty of Paris.
2 天前 · Buddha (born c. 6th–4th century bce, Lumbini, near Kapilavastu, Shakya republic, Kosala kingdom [now in Nepal]—died, Kusinara, Malla republic, Magadha kingdom [now Kasia, India]) was the founder of Buddhism, one of the major religions and philosophical systems of southern and eastern Asia and of the world. Buddha is one of the many epithets ...
12. The number 12 is strongly associated with the heavens—the 12 months, the 12 signs of the zodiac, and the 12 stations of the Moon and of the Sun. The ancients recognized 12 main northern stars and 12 main southern stars. There are 24 = 2 × 12 hours in the day, of which 12 are daytime and the other 12 nighttime.
